Emission control norms- International & Indian norms.

Emission standards

Emission standards are requirements that set specific limits to the amount of pollutants that can be released into the environment. Many emissions standards focus on regulating pollutants released by automobiles (motor cars) and other powered vehicles but they can also regulate emissions from industry, power plants, small equipment such as lawn mowers and diesel generators.

Vehicle emission performance standard: An emission performance standard is a limit that sets thresholds above which a different type of emission control technology might be needed.

In the United States, emissions standards are managed by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The state of California has special dispensation to promulgate more stringent vehicle emissions standards, and other states may choose to follow either the national or California standards

European Emission Standards

•European emission standards define the acceptable limits for exhaust emissions of new vehicles sold in EU member states.

•Currently, emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx), total hydrocarbon (THC), non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC), carbon monoxide (CO) and particulate matter (PM) are regulated for most vehicle types, including cars, lorries, trains, tractors and similar machinery,  but excluding seagoing ships and aeroplanes.

For each vehicle type, different standards apply. Compliance is determined by running the engine at a standardized test cycle. Non-compliant vehicles cannot be sold in the EU, but new standards do not apply to vehicles already on the roads. No use of specific technologies is mandated to meet the standards, though available technology is considered when setting the standards. New models introduced must meet current or planned standards

      •The stages are typically referred to as Euro 1, Euro 2, Euro 3, Euro 4 and Euro 5 for Light Duty Vehicle standards. The corresponding series of standards for Heavy Duty Vehicles use Roman, rather than Arabic numerals (Euro I, Euro II, etc.) The following is a summary list of the standards, when they come into force, what they apply to, and which EU directives provide the definition of the standard.

       •Euro 1 (1993):
–For passenger cars - 91/441/EEC.
–Also for passenger cars and light trucks - 93/59/EEC.
•Euro 2 (1996) for passenger cars - 94/12/EC (& 96/69/EC)
–For motorcycle - 2002/51/EC (row A) - 2006/120/EC
•Euro 3 (2000) for any vehicle - 98/69/EC
–For motorcycle - 2002/51/EC (row B) - 2006/120/EC
•Euro 4 (2005) for any vehicle - 98/69/EC (& 2002/80/EC)
•Euro 5 (2008/9) and Euro 6 (2014) for light passenger and commercial vehicles - 715/2007/EC

Bharat Stage Emission Standards

Bharat stage emission standards are emission standards instituted by the Government of India to regulate the output of air pollutants from internal combustion engine equipment, including motor vehicles. The standards and the timeline for implementation are set by the Central Pollution Control Board under the Ministry of Environment & Forests

History

•The first emission norms were introduced in India in 1991 for petrol and 1992 for diesel vehicles. These were followed by making the Catalytic converter mandatory for petrol vehicles and the introduction of unleaded petrol in the market.

•On April 29, 1999 the Supreme Court of India ruled that all vehicles in India have to meet Euro I or India 2000 norms by June 1, 1999 and Euro II will be mandatory in the NCR  by April 2000. Car makers were not prepared for this transition and in a subsequent judgment the implementation date for Euro II was not enforced...

•In 2002, the Indian government accepted the report submitted by the Mashelkar committee. The committee proposed a road map for the roll out of Euro based emission norms for India. It also recommended a phased implementation of future norms with the regulations being implemented in major cities first and extended to the rest of the country after a few years.

•Based on the recommendations of the committee, the National Auto Fuel policy was announced officially in 2003. The roadmap for implementation of the Bharat Stage norms were laid out till 2010. The policy also created guidelines for auto fuels, reduction of pollution from older vehicles and R&D for air quality data creation and health administration

•The standards, based on European regulations were first introduced in 2000. Progressively stringent norms have been rolled out since then. All new vehicles manufactured after the implementation of the norms have to be compliant with the regulations. Since October 2010, Bharat stage III norms have been enforced across the country. In 13 major cities, Bharat stage IV emission norms are in place since April 2010.

•The phasing out of 2 stroke engine for two wheelers, the stoppage of production of Maruti 800 & introduction of electronic controls have been due to the regulations related to vehicular emissions.

•While the norms help in bringing down pollution levels, it invariably results in increased vehicle cost due to the improved technology & higher fuel prices. However, this increase in private cost is offset by savings in health costs for the public, as there is lesser amount of disease causing particulate matter and pollution in the air.

Overview of the Emission Norms in India

       •1991 - Idle CO Limits for Gasoline Vehicles and Free Acceleration Smoke for Diesel Vehicles, Mass Emission Norms for Gasoline Vehicles.
•1992 - Mass Emission Norms for Diesel Vehicles.
•1996 - Revision of Mass Emission Norms for Gasoline and Diesel Vehicles, mandatory fitment of Catalytic Converter for Cars in Metros on Unleaded Gasoline.
•1998 - Cold Start Norms Introduced.
•2000 - India 2000 (Equivalent to Euro I) Norms, Modified IDC (Indian Driving Cycle), Bharat Stage II Norms for Delhi.
•2001 - Bharat Stage II (Equivalent to Euro II) Norms for All Metros, Emission Norms for CNG & LPG Vehicles.
•2003 - Bharat Stage II (Equivalent to Euro II) Norms for 13 major cities.
•2005 - From 1 April Bharat Stage III (Equivalent to Euro III) Norms for 13 major cities.
2010 - Bharat Stage III Emission Norms for 4-wheelers for entire country whereas Bharat Stage - IV (Equivalent to Euro IV) for 13 major cities. 

Pollutants produced by Automobiles

Air pollution can be defined as addition to our atmosphere of any material which will have a deleterious effect on life upon our planet. The main pollutants contributes by automobiles are carbon monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbons (UBHC), oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and lead and other particulate emissions. Automobiles are not the only source of air pollution, other sources such as electric power generating stations (which mainly emit sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and particulates), industrial and domestic fuel consumption, refuse burning, industrial processing etc., also contribute heavily to contamination of our environment. 

Automobiles are responsible for:

–18% of HC

–31% of CO

–11% of NOx     released into the atmosphere

•Automotive emissions have three sources:

* Evaporative Fuels - 15 to 25% of HC

* Crankcase Dilution / Blow by gas - 20 to 35% of HC 

* Exhaust Gases - 50 to 60% of HC and almost all CO and     NOx

Evaporative Losses 

Evaporative emissions account for 15 to 25 percent of total hydrocarbon emission from a gasoline engine. The two main sources of evaporative emissions are the fuel tank and the carburetor.

(i) Fuel tank losses: Fuel tank losses occur by displacement of vapour during filling of petrol tank, or by vaporization of fuel in the tank, forcing the vapour through a breather vent to the atmosphere. Where the temperature is low the fuel tank breathes in air. When the temperature goes high it 'breathes out' air loaded with petrol vapour. Fuel tank losses occur because the tank temperature is increased during the vehicle operation which causes an increase in the vapour pressure and thermal expansion of tank vapour. The mechanism of tank loss is as follows:   When a partially filled fuel tank is open to atmosphere the partial pressure of the vapour phase hydrocarbons and vapour pressure of the liquid are equal and they are in equilibrium. If the temperature of the liquid is increased, say by engine operation, the vapour pressure of the liquid will increase and it will vaporize in an attempt to restore equilibrium. As additional liquid vaporizes, the total pressure of the tank increases and since the tank is open to atmosphere the vapour will flow out of the tank. This outflow to the vapour will increase if in addition to liquid temperature rise, the vapour temperature is also increased.

   The evaporation from the tank is affected by a large number of variables of which the ambient and fuel tank temperature, the mode of vehicle operation, the amount of fuel hi the tank and the volatility of the fuel are important. Other significant factors are the capacity, design and location of the fuel tank with respect to the exhaust system and the flow pattern of the heated air underneath the vehicle.

   Less the tank fill, greater is the evaporation loss. This reflects the difference in the tank vapour space. Also when a car is parked in a hot location the evaporation of the gasoline in the tank accelerates, so the evaporation loss is greater. The operational modes substantially affect the evaporation loss. When the tank temperature rises the loss increases. The vapour which vent from a partially filled tank during vehicle operation called soak, is a mixture of air and hydrocarbon. After a prolonged high speed operation the HC per cent in the soak is as high as 60 per cent as compared to about 30 per cent after an overnight soak.

(ii) Carburetor losses: Carburetor losses result from (a) external venting of the float bowl relieving the internal pressure as the carburetor heats, and (b) 'hot soak1 losses which occur after the engine has been stopped, as a result of evaporation of petrol stored in the bowl, loss being through vent pipe or through the air cleaner. Most of the loss from the carburetor occurs due to direct boiling of the fuel in the carburetor bowl during hot soak. Carburetor bowl temperature during hot, soak rises 15°C to 45°C above the ambient. This can cause fuel boiling and the front end gasoline components. In some designs the small passage from bowl leading to the throat after 'heating causes siphon action leading to HC loss.

  If the pressure in the fuel line becomes greater than the pressure holding the needle valve closed, after supply will occur. One of the possible reasons may be fuel evaporation pressure in the carburetor bowl which presses down the bowl and increase pressure in the fuel line. If the after-supply is more than the bowl volume the losses from the carburetor will change drastically. Thus bowl volume and maximum bowl temperature both significantly affect the evaporative losses from the carburetor.

Crankcase/Blow by gases:

The blow by is the phenomenon of leakage past the piston and piston rings from the cylinder to the crankcase. The blow by HC emissions are about 20 per cent of the total HC emission from the engine. This is increased to about 30 per cent if the rings are worn.

   The mechanism of leakage past the piston is as follows Air-fuel mixture trapped in the top land clearance and behind the top ring is unable to burn due to wall quenching effect. The cylinder forces this quenched gas past the piston ring and into the crankcase, along with some burned gases. In the blow by gas about 85 per cent carbureted mixture in the form of raw HC is present and rest 15 per cent is the burned gases.

   The blow by rate is greatly affected by the top land clearance and the position of the top ring because some of quenched gas is recycled in the combustion chamber and the ability of this to burn will depend on nearness to spark plug and the flame speed, etc., and it will burn only when favourable conditions are there, otherwise, it will go in the form of HC.

   Exhaust Emissions:

        Tail pipe exhaust emissions are the major source of automotive emissions. Petrol consists of a mixture of various hydrocarbons and if we could get perfect combustion then the exhaust would consist only of carbon dioxide and water vapors plus air that did not enter into the combustion process. However, for several reasons combustion is incomplete and hence we also get carbon monoxide, a deadly poisonous gas, and unburnt hydrocarbons (UBHC) in exhaust. Hydrocarbons play an active part in the formation of smog.

Exhaust gas or flue gases is emitted as a result of the

combustion of fuels such as petrol, diesel or fuel oil.

•A car's exhaust system is responsible for transporting

the burned exhaust, or combustion gases, from its engine

and out through the tail pipe.

•An exhaust system is usually tubing used to guide

reaction exhaust gases away from a controlled combustion

inside an engine . The entire system conveys burnt gases

from the engine and includes one or more exhaust pipes,

depending on the overall system design.

Pollutants from Exhaust

•CO — carbon monoxide. The main source of CO in cities is the internal combustion engine, where it is produced by incomplete combustion.

•CO2 — carbon dioxide. The internal combustion engine contributes to the increased concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere.

•NOx — nitrogen oxide forms when fuels are burned at high temperatures.

•HC — hydrocarbons. Much of the hydrocarbon fuel passes through the process unconsumed and is expelled into the atmosphere along with other exhaust fumes.

•Other pollutants such as C6H6 — Benzene and its derivatives

•SO2 — sulphur dioxide are also present

Air pollution

Air Pollution

Air pollution is a release into the atmosphere of any substances, ex. chemicals or airborne particles, which are harmful both to the human and animal health as well as the health of the wider environment.

Pollution is now a common place term that our ears are attuned to. We hear about the various forms of pollution and read about it through the mass media. Air pollution is one such form that refers to the contamination of the air, irrespective of indoors or outside. A physical, biological or chemical alteration to the air in the atmosphere can be termed as pollution. It occurs when any harmful gases, dust, smoke enters into the atmosphere and makes it difficult for plants, animals and humans to survive as the air becomes dirty.

Air pollution can further be classified into two sections- Visible air pollution and invisible air pollution. Another way of looking at Air pollution could be any substance that holds the potential to hinder the atmosphere or the well being of the living beings surviving in it. The sustainment of all things living is due to a combination of gases that collectively form the atmosphere; the imbalance caused by the increase or decrease of the percentage of these gases can be harmful for survival.

Types of Pollutants

In order to understand the causes of Air pollution, several divisions can be made. Primarily air pollutants can be caused by primary sources or secondary sources. The pollutants that are a direct result of the process can be called primary pollutants. A classic example of a primary pollutant would be the sulfur-dioxide emitted from factories

Secondary pollutants are the ones that are caused by the inter mingling and reactions of primary pollutants. Smog created by the interactions of several primary pollutants is known to be as secondary pollutant.

There are four main types of air pollution sources:

• mobile sources – such as cars, buses, planes, trucks, and trains
• stationary sources – such as power plants, oil refineries, industrial facilities, and factories
• area sources – such as agricultural areas, cities, and wood burning fireplaces
• natural sources – such as wind-blown dust, wildfires, and volcanoes

Causes of Air pollution

1. Burning of Fossil Fuels: Sulfur dioxide emitted from the combustion of fossil fuels like coal, petroleum and other factory combustibles is one the major cause of air pollution. Pollution emitting from vehicles including trucks, jeeps, cars, trains, airplanes cause immense amount of pollution. We rely on them to fulfill our daily basic needs of transportation. But, there overuse is killing our environment as dangerous gases are polluting the environment. Carbon Monoxide caused by improper or incomplete combustion and generally emitted from vehicles is another major pollutant along with Nitrogen Oxides that is produced from both natural and manmade processes.

2. Agricultural activities: Ammonia is a very common by product from agriculture related activities and is one of the most hazardous gases in the atmosphere. Use of insecticides, pesticides and fertilizers in agricultural activities has grown quite a lot. They emit harmful chemicals into the air and can also cause water pollution.

3. Exhaust from factories and industries: Manufacturing industries release large amount of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, organic compounds, and chemicals into the air thereby depleting the quality of air. Manufacturing industries can be found at every corner of the earth and there is no area that has not been affected by it. Petroleum refineries also release hydrocarbons and various other chemicals that pollute the air and also cause land pollution.

4. Mining operations: Mining is a process wherein minerals below the earth are extracted using large equipments. During the process dust and chemicals are released in the air causing massive air pollution. This is one of the reason which is responsible for the deteriorating health conditions of workers and nearby residents.

5. Indoor air pollution: Household cleaning products, painting supplies emit toxic chemicals in the air and cause air pollution. Have you ever noticed that once you paint walls of your house, it creates some sort of smell which makes it literally impossible for you to breathe.

Suspended particulate matter popular by its acronym SPM, is another cause of pollution. Referring to the particles afloat in the air, SPM is usually caused by dust, combustion etc.

Effects of Air pollution

1. Respiratory and heart problems: The effects of Air pollution are alarming. They are known to create several respiratory and heart conditions along with Cancer, among other threats to the body. Several millions are known to have died due to direct or indirect effects of Air pollution. Children in areas exposed to air pollutants are said to commonly suffer from pneumonia and asthma.

2. Global warming: Another direct effect is the immediate alterations that the world is witnessing due to Global warming. With increased temperatures worldwide, increase in sea levels and melting of ice from colder regions and icebergs, displacement and loss of habitat have already signaled an impending disaster if actions for preservation and normalization aren’t undertaken soon.

3. Acid Rain: Harmful gases like nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides are released into the atmosphere during the burning of fossil fuels. When it rains, the water droplets combines with these air pollutants, becomes acidic and then falls on the ground in the form of acid rain. Acid rain can cause great damage to human, animals and crops.

4. Eutrophication: Eutrophication is a condition where high amount of nitrogen present in some pollutants gets developed on sea’s surface and turns itself into algae and adversely affects fish, plants and animal species. The green colored algae that are present on lakes and ponds is due to presence of this chemical only.

5. Effect on Wildlife: Just like humans, animals also face some devastating effects of air pollution. Toxic chemicals present in the air can force wildlife species to move to new place and change their habitat. The toxic pollutants deposit over the surface of the water and can also affect sea animals.

6. Depletion of Ozone layer: Ozone exists in earth’s stratosphere and is responsible for protecting humans from harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. Earth’s ozone layer is depleting due to the presence of chlorofluorocarbons, hydro chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere. As ozone layer will go thin, it will emit harmful rays back on earth and can cause skin and eye related problems. UV rays also have the capability to affect crops.

Air Pollutant	Health Effects
Carbon monoxide (CO)	Colourless and odourless gas. Reacts with hemoglobin in preference of oxygen. This reduces the amount of oxygen being carried around the body and can result in suffocation. Fortunately, this reaction is slow and requires very high concentrations before adverse effects are felt.
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)	Brown poisonous gas. Effects trachea and lungs causing respiratory problems.
Ozone (O3)	Colourless gas, slightly sweet odour at low concentrations. Causes eye irritations at concentration of 0.3ppm and respiratory problems at higher concentrations
PAN gas	Effects eyes, nasal passages and respiratory system.

THE ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere is a mixture of different gases, particles and aerosols collectively known as air which envelops the Earth. The atmosphere provides various functions, not least the ability to sustain life. The atmosphere protects us by filtering out deadly cosmic rays, powerful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun, and even meteors on collision course with Earth.

• The earth's atmosphere is a very thin layer wrapped around a very large planet.
• Two gases make up the bulk of the earth's atmosphere: nitrogen which comprises 78% of the atmosphere, and oxygen , which accounts for 21%. Various trace gases make up the remainder.
• Based on temperature, the atmosphere is divided into four layers: the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere.

Nitrogen	N2	78.08%
Oxygen	O2	20.95%
*Water	H2O	0 to 4%
Argon	Ar	0.93%
*Carbon Dioxide	CO2	0.0360%
Neon	Ne	0.0018%
Helium	He	0.0005%
*Methane	CH4	0.00017%
Hydrogen	H2	0.00005%
*Nitrous Oxide	N2O	0.00003%
*Ozone	O3	0.000004%

APCE syllabus

Test 1